All on Lake Todos los Santos, Chile - Part II: Flora

Trees

The most frequent big tree in the Lake area is Coihue, Nothofagus dombeyi, sometimes written "coigüe" for no good reason. Wherever one is around the Lake, a coihue is probably not far away. Any picture you take in the Lake region has a good chance of containing one or several coihues. The picture on the right was taken at Punta Cruces northwards, towards the Lake and the Puntiagudo. Once recognized, the stratified profile of the coihue branches stick in memory. Coihues grow up to 50 meters tall and, when growing in the forest, the coihue's crown is always a bit above the general canopy level. In a way, coihue can be said to be a main pillar in the local terrestrial ecological system, present in many of the region's forest biomes. Its small, wind-distributed seeds allow coihue to take a first option in colonizing forest area cleared by a fallen tree, landslide or fire. To secure an advantage for their place in the light, saplings and young coihues are seen clinging to cracks or holes in fallen trees. The range of coihue extends fairly far into the snowy region; its branches are flexible and tenacious: when the weight of snow becomes overbearing, they bend without breaking until the snow is shed. These trees live to 400-500 years. The wood of old specimens is heavy and quite resistant to rot, while young specimens engaged in the race for domination and access to light have soft wood. Because of its size and ease of access - there were big coihues almost everywhere - indigenous people used coihue to draw the large planks needed to construct the sewn-plank boats that were called "dalca". Coihue is said to be associated with a micorhiza fungus - a fungus that helps the plant to absorb minerals from the soil and receives nutrients from the tree. This mutually beneficial association is given as one possible explanation of this tree's ability to grow faster and taller than the competition. The flower of coihue is tiny and not intended to attract insects: the same as the distribution of seeds, pollinization is entrusted to the wind.

The genus Nothofagus, which belongs to the Angiospermae, Dicotyledonae, is a major component of the southern rainforest. It used to be classified as part of the beech (Fagaceae) family but recent research has given it an independent status with regard. The genus Nothofagus is present in the South of South America, New Zealand, Australia, New Guinea and New Caledonia. Some species are evergreen while others are deciduous. Besides coihue, three other Nothofagus species are present in the Lake region: ñirre, Nothofagus antarctica; coihue de Magallanes, Nothofagus betuloides; and lenga, Nothofagus pumilio. Lenga, ñirre and coihue de Magallanes are more specifically adapted to extreme cold conditions than coihue and grow in the space between the coihue's maximum altitudinal extension and the "timber line". These species shed their leaves in autumn and in that season their area, seen from the Lake, becomes yellow and reddish. In this region, coihue de Magallanes and lenga grows only to the size of a bush, but further south they make sizeable trees and their timber is appreciated.

Unlike the quest for coihue, on a sunny day probably the tree that is giving you shadow, meeting the indigenous Gimnospermae, the pine-like trees, requires an effort in hiking. Walk, thread softly, and exercise both your body and your mind!

Alerce, lahuen, Fitzroya cupressoides, is a tall tree of the cypress group that grows to become more than 50 meters tall and 3000 or more years old. Some alerces living today were already old when Columbus sailed the Atlantic both ways, when Pontius Pilatos washed his hands and when Homer composed the Illiad, but there are not many old alerce trees left. Alerce means "larch tree", which it is not. This the name is entrenched since in the sixteenth century overseas invaders took possession of the land of the huilliche people that is now Southern Chile and initiated massive exploitation of this species. "Fitzroya", which honors Captain FitzRoy of the "Beagle", is a useful name because there are no other fitzroyas around, but most local people will react to "alerce" only. The red wood of alerce is of outstanding quality, easy to work and resistent to rot. It has been massively used for roof shingles, in the construction of ships and boats and in general construction.

Because of the properties of its wood, fitzroya has been the involuntary actor of a curious piece of history. For a couple of centuries all gold, silver and compact valuables extracted by enslaved indigenous labour was transported to Europe where it financed wars, palaces, gilded churches and the ostentation of princes. The export of gold and silver did not leave behind a dime of metal to monetarize for local trade, and so it came to be that alerce planks were used as a currency reference unit for commercial exchanges: this house, this real estate, this herd of cattle, is worth so many alerce planks, etc. This timber was exported from the Chiloe region to Central Chile and to Peru. Alerce was also the object of failed attempts at protection: a more pious than practical bill of law forbade to cut the tree when alive, so loggers intent on making a buck fell only trees after they were dead. Perhaps too expedient to believe in the sincerity of the lawmakers.

The seeds of alerce have little wings which facilitate their dispersal by wind. The survival strategy of Fitzroya is based on its ability to go on living even if not much light is available, combined with slow growth and long life. Young alerces live in the shadow of trees of accelerated grow, like the coihue. Having access to only a little bit of light, fitzroyas grow slowly until, in a few centuries, half a millenium or so, the day comes when the old coihue crumbles; by then, the hopeful fitzroya is already there, firmly rooted and ready to claim the freed spot of forest real estate. This strategy served this tenacious, patient tree species well, until the time came when man devastated its populations. Some observers have wondered about the "preference" of this species for hardly accessible rocky places up in the mountains. Actually, the tree grows well in humid lowlands, but not fast enough to trigger greedy humans into establishing plantations.

But where can one see a Fitzroya? The waterlogged plains extending between Puerto Montt and Puerto Varas were once covered by an alerce forest but sadly these trees, up to the very last specimen, were reduced to timber. Poor people are still making a (modest) livelihood out of digging for the roots of the dead trees. The process by which fitzroyas were exploited and destroyed was called something like "development" of "inexhaustible natural resources" to "serve God and the King" and the like. Every resource, economists say, when exhausted will be replaced by another one. This writer would wish to return the "development", Chin Chin prison and all, and get the fitzroya forest back. To see an alerce tree nowadays one has to look in public or private parks where they have been planted as a curiosity; but by necessity, those trees are infants, hardly a century old. Old growth alerces do exist in the Lake region, up in the mountains, at places from where fetching the timber is not only against the law but also un-economic. Because of their characteristic coniferous tree profile, local people can point out up in hills around the Lake the places where alerces survive. To get there requires a guide (never walk into a wilderness without knowing what you are doing) and a good day of hiking. The easy way to experience this amazing venerable tall tree species is to visit Douglas Tompkins' Pumalin Park, in Chaiten south of Puerto Montt. Doug conducted an uphill battle to rescue a part of the amazing Chaiten alerce groves from "development" by the timber companies and their politically influential associates, so it is understandable that he does not like anybody to do as much as to touch them. Doug, if you ever read this: thank you, you did what we could only dream of.

The long life of alerce has led the species into something of an "evolutionary bottleneck": in the 15 000 years since the glaciers withdrew, there were not that many alerce generations, so the currently living specimens are genetically almost exactly as their ancestors. Annual species such as grass would in this time have had 15 000 generations to adapt to an always changing environment. At the southern end of then continent the world is quite unstable, subject to earthquakes, landslides, ice age glaciers, violent wind and lanslides. It could be that the patience of Fitzroya is not adapted to the rapid devastation of our times.

The genus Cupressaceae has, besides the Fitzroya, another species represented in the Lake flora: Lahuan, ciprés, ciprés de las Guaitecas, ten, Pilgerodendron uviferum. This cypress is a stately tree that can grow up to 40 meters and looks not so different from alerce. The main area of distribution of this tree is farther south than the Lake, in Chiloé and in the southernmost Magallanes region. Ciprés timber is yellow and emits a pleasant scent. Easy to work and with outstanding resistence to rot, it is appreciated for furniture and for naval construction. Ciprés grows on swampy or waterlogged soil. It is not easy to spot in the Lake region because, like alerce, it has been severely decimated. Ciprés groves are reported to have been preserved under private domain on the slopes of the Puntiagudo.

Two more Gimnospermae species are noteworthy in the Lake region: Podocarpus nubigena and Saxegothaea conspicua, both of the Podocarpaceae, and both called locally mañiu. Podocarpus nubigena, the one with the stiff leaves, is called mañiu macho. Podocarpus nubigena grows up to 30 m, on humid and shallow ground. The leaves are 3 to 5 cm long. This species carries a juicy berry of about one cm, red when ripe. Its timber, of a bright yellow color, is appreciated for beauty of vein and ease to work. The other mañiu: Saxegothaea conspicua, has soft leaves and is called mañiu hembra. It grows only to about 15 meters and it's leaves have about 1.5 to 2.5 cm. This species carries a dry, woody fruit. The timber of both trees is similar and appreciated for furniture carpentry.

Muermo, ulmo, Eucryphia cordifolia, is a stately tree that grows up to 40 meters. Ulmo means "elm" and is an entrenched misnomer replacing the legitimate (and univocal) indigenous name "muermo". In midsummer the tree dresses with white flowers that are much appreciated by bees and that are seen at a distance around the Lake. Observing an Eucryphia branch, one can see this year's flowers next to past year's seeds - muermo sheds the seeds only the year after. Eucryphia seeds have a wing that facilitates a better distribution by the wind. The muermo bark is rich in tanine. Its wood is brown and used as construction timber; it is also a good quality firewood. Unlike coihues and alerces, to hold their place in the forest when broken by accident or cut down, muermo is able to regenerate from the roots. This gives them a start advantage against newly arrived seedlings eager to colonize the freed forest ground.

Honey manufactured by bees in the season they visit the eucryphias, called "miel de ulmo", is an institution in Chile and, when genuine, very good. Unfortunately, "the market" has not yet decided that all "ulmo honey" sold has to be the real thing, so make sure you can trust your honey supplier.

The Eucryphiaceae are a Gondwanan lineage. Five other members of the lineage exist in Australia. A related species in Chile (not present in the Lake region), is Eucryphia glutinosa, guindo santo, a lovely bush used in gardening.

Teñiu, tineo, Weinmannia trichosperma, grows 30 and more meters tall and, like coihue, is a dominant species that depends on its access to light. It grows typically at levels from 250 to 400 meters, where it may take from 25 to 50% of the canopy stratum. Teñiu is easily recognized in November, when it is dressed in flowers that are initially white and turn to pink. These flowers are very good providers of honey, less well known than "ulmo" yet of optimal quality. The seeds of tineo are very tiny, which facilitates their dispersion by the wind but makes the early survival of the plantlets closely subject to the availability of moisture. The young individuals have a better chance to succeed in the shadow of the Lophosoria quadripinata fern, which they overgrow after a few years. Tineo wood is hard and has a nice vein but is not much used in construction. The reason is that the local termites are inordinately fond of consuming precisely this wood, and having it in-house is bound to be the cause of trouble.

Teñiu belongs to the family of the Cunionaceae, a tropical lineage that found its way to adapt in the Southern Rainforest. Of the same genus is Tiaca, Caldcluvia paniculata. Tiaca can grow to some 20 meters but is often found as underwood.

Tique, olivillo, aceitunillo, palo muerto, Aextoxicon punctatum, is the only representative of the Aextoxicae genus. This tree grows to some 20 - 25 metres and is common in the lower, warmer exposures of the Lake region. The indigenous name "tique" is still widely recognized, challenged by the unsmart designation "olivillo", a reference to the fruit which, with some imagination effort, could be seen as a small olive. "Palo muerto" refers to the ghastly aspect of the tree when seen in the distance, owing to the whitish underside of the leaves. The leaves allow for easy determination of the tree because of red points seen on the underside, the rationale for its "punctatum" name; as for "aextoxicon", it refers to the supposed toxicity of the tree, or its shadow, for goats parking under it. Tique is present in the relict forests of Fray Jorge and Talinay in the arid region North of Santiago, giving room to phytogeographical considerations.

Tepa, huahuan, Laurelopsis philippiana, a relatively frequent tree in this region, has leaves that produce a pleasant scent reminding of men's after-shave lotion. However, the timber obtained from this tree is not much appreciated because of an unpleasing smell attached to the wood. The seeds are small and hairy, which helps them to float away with the wind. Huahuan belongs to the tropical lineage of the Monimiaceae. In the same genus is laurel, trihue, Laurelia sempervirens. Laurel is marginally present in the Lake region. The leaves of laurel have a sawed contour and at the tip of each tooth is a gland that produces an aromatic oil. Mark that this tree is unrelated to classic laurel and dont be mislead by the wildly inappropriate name to use its leaves in food preparation.

With this we can turn to two taxa of trees in the size of overgrown bushes: the Proteaceae and the Mirtaceae. The Proteaceae in particular represent a taxon peculiar to the southern hemisphere, with members in Oceania; there are a number of Proteaceae but the taxon of the Mirtaceae is, in this region, the most diversified in species.

Gevuin, avellano, Gevuina avellana, is a handsome not so big tree that any local person can point out to you. The white to yellow flowers are visited with visible and audible delight by bees. The fruit, avellana, is an edible nut, cousin to the macadamia nut. On this tree one can see the unripe green and red nuts coexist with the ripe black nuts. The ripe nuts are then shed, as we have seen for the Eucryphia, until the autumn of the following year. Native rodents, while consuming the nuts, also help to disperse the seeds. The avellana nut used to be a relevant part in the nutrition of indigenous people. Avellana nuts can sometimes be obtained roasted as cocktail nuts and efforts are underway to cultivate this tree in plantations.

Notro, ciruelillo, Embothrium coccineum, "Chilean firebush" in gardening, has a plethoric flowering from springtime to autumn. The flowers are red, tubular, and rich in nectar, and are visited assiduously by hummingbirds (Sephanoides sephaniodes) and also other birds, such as fiofio (Elaenia albiceps). It is present in the rainforest all the way south to the straits and can partly explain why hummingbirds, supposed to be of tropical habits, are seen at such high latitudes. Notro is used as a park tree in places like Puerto Varas.

Avellano and notro belong to the Proteaceae, a peculiar group of Southern Rainforest trees. These are generally medium-sized trees, and some of them look extremely nice in parks. The wood of most Protaceae has an attractive dotted vein and is used for furniture - but individuals big enough for felling have become scarce. Fortunately for their survival, these species do not await to be grown to full size to initiate reproduction. The wood of radal, Lomatia hirsuta, is much sought for fine furniture. The leaves of huinque, Lomatia ferruginea did find an export market in Japan, where they are used for decorative purposes. Another member of the Proteaceae present in the Lake region is piñol, corcolén, Lomatia dentata.

Arrayan, temu, Luma apiculata, the local leader of the Myrtaceae can, depending on its environment, grow up to 15 meters or so, or stay as a big bush. Temu has a long flowering period when it is covered with white flowers busily visited by bees, which make it a wonderful ornamental tree. Its smooth bark of a brilliant orange color is unmistakable. Its shiny black fruit, also called "cauchau", is edible but insipid. Temu is associated with plenty availability of water and grows close to beaches and in particularly humid sectors of the forest. "Arrayan" translates as "myrtle". The popular designation is used loosely for two or more species of the group. The myrtles, Myrtaceae, with nine species ranging from the size of trees to shrub, are the most diversified botanical group in the region. The other myrtles are: Luma, reloncavi, Amomyrtus luma, a sizable tree (up to 20 meters) that grows slowly and has exceptionally heavy and hard wood. This is used for tool handles and sticks such as the police truncheons Chileans affectionately call "la luma". It is also appreciated as firewood. Patagua, petra, Myrceugenia exsucca, is a tree of 10 to 15 meters found very close to bodies of water. The bark has long and broad longitudinal fissures, as if there were vines climbing on the stem, giving it an aspect vaguely reminiscent of mangrove trees. This tree is sometimes applied to secure river banks. Other Myrtaceae present in the region are: meli, Amomyrtus meli; luma blanca, Myrceugenia chrysocarpa; tepu, Tepualia stipularis; pitra, patagua, Myrceugenia planipes; Myrteola nummularia; and murta, murtilla, Ugni molinae. Note that more than one species is designated as "patagua"; actually, this term could apply to any tree with its feet in the water. Murtilla is definitely a small shrub and not an underdeveloped tree, and we will come back on it under "shrubs".

Canelo, fuñe, Drymis winterii, grows on swampy lowlands. Its wood is used in the fabrication of furniture and musical instruments. It is reported that for the native mapuche people this tree was sacred and its leaves served as symbol of peace. It is not used as firewood because of the biting quality of its smoke. The area of canelo extends down to the straits where in 1578 was recognized by a certain captain Winter of the Drake expedition as a remedy to scurvy; thus, canelo is also called "Winter's bark", and this bark was the first source of Vitamin C commercialized. Canelo belongs to the genus of the Winteraceae. A variety of canelo, D. w. andina, is adapted to the colder climate in the mountains.

Palo santo, trevo, Dasyphyllum diacanthoides, is a tree that grows up to 15 - 20 meters and has thorns at the base of the leaves. It belongs to the large family of the Compositae and, as one would expect, its seeds fly away with the wind supported by a gracious parachute, like dandelion or thistle.

Bushes and shrubs

"Bush" and "shrub" are not particularly accurate descriptions but they are nevertheless useful terms: the size of the adult specimen can help to find its name. However, mind you that the art of bonsai tells us that we can have a normally monumental tree growing in a flowerpot. In the Lake region we can find what ought to be a venerable coihue or alerce growing bush- and shrub-wise because, given the ground and the climate, that is the way to live. Bushes and shrubs, as understood here, have ligneous, that is "woody", stems and branches. Generally we'll assume that, if more than 10 m tall, it is a tree. "Ligneous" opposes to herbaceous, that is, plants with "soft" stems and branches, deprived of the "wooden" quality. Some plants with woody branches qualify as "vines" or even "epiphytes" and are included in other groups. We take it that bushes and shrubs stand on their own.

Uñi, murta, murtilla, Ugni molinae, is a small bush that bears edible berries named "murta" or "murtilla" in early autumn. These berries are red when unripe and turn pink to whitish when ripe in early autumn. They are sweet, aromatic and very much edible. It has been used to produce a fermented beverage and, more recently, as a fruit preserve for deserts and for decorating pastry. In season, it is offered on sale, mostly by children, around Ensenada, on the road from Puerto Varas to Petrohue. Murta belongs to the Myrtaceae but, unlike its tree cousins, does never grow tall.

Maqui, Aristotelia chilensis is a bush that grows up to a 5 meters size. The berry of the maqui, some 4-5 mm in diameter, is rich in sugar and tanine. Besides local use for preparation of a fermented beverage, maqui juice has been used to give a darker color and a stronger body to otherwise weak wines. It is much appreciated by children and birds, notably the local pigeon Columba araucana. Maqui berries used to be collected by native people for drying and keeping; when needed, the berries preserved dry would be ground in a mortar and used in food preparation. Maqui comes in male and female individuals: it is "dioecious". The seeds are diligently distributed by birds and maqui, which make the bush an early colonizer of cleared land as well as an agent in protection from erosion. Maqui belongs to the family of the Elaeocarpaceae and is the only representative of this genus in the Lake region.

Chilco, Fuchsia magellanica, in the 3-5 meters league, grows on the fringe of the forest and in the proximity of water. Its hanging pastel-coloured flowers, visited by hummingbirds, have earned it a place in gardening. Unlike most gardening varieties, which descend of tropical fuchsias with bigger flowers, chilco is fairly resistant to cold. The flowers are red and mauve; a fairly uncommon subspecies of chilco (Fuchsia magellanica molinae)has white, slightly blushed flowers. Chilco belongs to the tropical lineage of the Onagraceae.

Panguil, matico, Buddleja globosa, the golden globe butterfly bush, is a shrub with yellow flowers grouped in 1.5 cm globular heads. The leaves are wrinkled and covered with hairs so that they look grey. Flowers and leaves of panguil have various applications in popular medicine. It belongs to the Buddleiaceae.

Taique, Desfontainea spinosa, Chilean holly, an underwood shrub present in the 700 - 900 meters altitude range. Bears a red flower in the form of a funnel, as is comfortable for hummingbirds. The spiked leaves are used as a yellow dye. Desfontainea has been changed to Chiropetalon, of the Euphorbiaceae family, and internet resources have not yet fully recovered.

Huique, mataratones, Coriaria ruscifolia, is frequent around Petrohue and on the rocky shores of the Lake. The berry, ripe en February, is said to be used as rat poison. In another version of the story, the entire plant is toxic, except for the berry. Have huique pointed out to you and while the truth about its toxicity is sorted out, keep your children away from messing with huique. Huique belongs to the taxon of the Coriariaceae and is sometimes described as a climbing plant.

Pillopillo, palo hediondo, Ovidia pillopillo. Soft flexible wood used to make guitars. The plant has toxic, cathartic, emetic properties. Used as anthelmintic in small doses. Indigenous people used it to capture fish by poisoning stagnating water with the soft-beaten branches.

Aromo, Azara lanceolata. This bush bears yellow flowers in early springtime, later speckled grey berries. Used for ornament. Belongs to the Flacourtiaceae.

Michay, Berberis darwinii, Darwin's barberry, grows on well-drained soil, such as on the flanks of the Osorno. It has lovely orange flowers and colorful fruits. The roots were used for dyeing wool in yellow. Any child can point out to you this small shrub with the leaves provided with small spines.

Michay belongs to the Berberidaceae, a group that worldwide contains some 450 species. Six of these are recorded in the Lake region: Berberis darwinii, B. buxifolia, B. linearifolia, B. montana, B. percei, B. trigona, but there could be more, and some or all of them may be called michay, a collective term for Berberidaceae. Actually it's a bit difficult to keep them apart, and some produce hybrid individuals. In the arid region East of the Andes (not the Lake region) some michay are called calafate, in particular Berberis buxifolia, but the term calafate too is used losely for the group.

Chaura, Pernettya sp., is a spiny small (say 60 cm) shrub remarked for its colourful berries that look like small apples. Chauras belong to the taxon of the Ericaceae. There are five species recorded for the Lake region: Gaultheria antarctica, Gaultheria phyllyreifolia, Pernettya furiens, Pernettya poeppigii, Pernettya pumilia, and they are all called "chaura".

The case of michay and chaura illustrates the difficulty with vernacular names: they are useful and in a practical way make sense but they often are not univocal, one name to one species. Walk the flanks of the Osorno to enjoy the gorgeous thickets of these species with their bright flowers and colorful berries.

Quila, Chusquea quila, belongs to the taxon of the bamboos, the Bambuseae. Unlike otherwise typical bamboos, quila grows branches which help it to hold on to trees to close in on sunlight. Quila stems may grow up to 15 meters long and, through its dense occuppation of space, the species is quite effective at preventing the growth of other plants in forest clearings. Indigenous people used to eat the sprouts of quila, called "huilo", baked in the hot cinders of the home fire, either natural or with salt and chili pepper. Cattle left loose in the forest takes a large part of its food intake from the leaves of quila. During dry spells quilas burn easily and thus "quilantos" have been common targets for clearing land by fire.

While many bamboo species have hollow stems, the taxon Chusquea has full stems. Actually, bamboos are Gramineae, grasses. Their stems are hard and woody in a peculiar way. Like grasses, they shed their seeds all at once so that no seed-eating animals can possibly consume them all and some will stay to give rise to the next generation. Bamboos live many years without flowering until some mysterious clock calls them all together to grow flowers, make seeds and die. The "flor de la quila" takes place once in 50 or 60 years, and this in turn gives rise to an episode of demographic explosion of small forest rodents ("mice"), who for a few months find seemingly unlimited food supply. The last "flor de la quila" took place in the early 1990s. Besides quila, colihue, Chusquea culeou, is frequent in the Lake region; the stems of colihue do not make branches and are appreciated for this trait that makes them ideal for supporting the growth of climbing beans in the vegetable garden. Another bamboo: tihuen, Chusquea montana grows in higher locations; tihuen is small and appreciated by cattle left to feed on its own devices in the forest.

There are more bushes and shrubs, of course, but at this time we'll leave the subject here.

Vines

The Southern Rainforest contains a diversity of woody vines, which is unusual in forests of the temperate climate. Indigenous people have found many uses for these vines. They carry the general popular name designation of "voqui". Voquis can be very large or very small. They are useful for weaving baskets and similar objects, for fastening the parts of the house, as medicinal plants and as providers of food. The fact that these plants climb or creep on other plants is incidental: they belong to a diversity of botanical taxa.

Pehuelden, pahualdin, voqui naranjo, Hydrangea serratifolia. This vine grows with some of the taller forest trees and its stem can have more than 10 cm diameter at a man's height. Pahualdin has a pretty flower that comes at the canopy level. Pahualdin belongs to the taxon of the Hydrangeaceae and is thus a relative to hortensias. It is used in gardening, in particular to develop a green front and shaded alley for roadside businesses.

Voqui valdiviano, Campsidium valdivianum. Bignoniaceae. Often confused with another Bignonaceae, pipilvoqui (Boquila trifoliata).

Quilmay, voqui quilmay, Elytropus chilensis. The white flowers have a pleasant perfume. The plant is used as purgative. It has toxic properties and was sometimes used to produce abortion.

Mahul, Cissus striata. Used in basketry and as cords in the construction of the "ruka", the traditional dwelling of the mapuche people.

Pilpil voqui, voqui blanco, Boquila trifoliata. Used as eyewash and also as aphrodisiac. Belongs to the Lardizabalaceae.

Coicopihue, pichi-copihue, Phylesia magellanica. Grows in underwood, leaning and clinging on to trees. Knotty, very hard twigs. Showy flower similar to its famous cousin the copihue (not naturally present around the Lake) but smaller. Sometimes described as "epiphyte", that is, growing upon trees.

Coicopihue, like copihue, belongs to Philesiaceae and thus is a monocot. Quilineja, Luzuriaga radicans, is another Philesiaceae. The quilineja's stiff branches are used to make sturdy brooms. Said to provide the fiber of which the fearful forest ghost Trauco makes his garment. Disguised with his quilineja garment, Trauco patiently awaits perched on a branch of a tree and jumps upon unwise girls that take the forest path without an enegetic chaperone.

Botellita, voquivoqui, Mitraria coccinea. Another underbush leaning on forest trees, with gracefully hanging red tubular flowers. Botellita belongs to the Gesneriaceae. Other Gesneriaceae with attractive flowers are: Medallita, canucan, Sarmienta repens, and estrellita, Asteranthera ovata.

Epiphytes

Epiphytes are plants that grow upon other plants. Some epiphytes simply use the bigger, earlier established plant as a convenient support; other epiphytes draw nutrition form their host and are thus "parasitic". Many ferns, mosses and lichens are epyphytic; the epyphytes of these taxa are not addressed here but in the relevant sections.

Rucachucao, Nertera granadensis. A small plant that forms a green cushion with little red berries. Used to cure wounds, has found its way into gardening around water fountains. Rubiaceae.

Quintral, Tristerix corymbosa. This plant grows on coihues, poplars and other trees and draws nutrition from the hosting tree. Its green leaves indicate that it carries out its own photosynthesis, leaving the "root work" to the host, and it is thus called "hemi-parasite", a half-parasite. Quintral has a very long flowering period, with tubular bright orange flowers that attract hummingbirds and provide sustainance when no other flowers are in bloom.

Chupalla, Fascicularia bicolor. This is the only member of the Bromeliaceae that grows in the Lake region. It belongs to the same group as ananas.

Ferns

We use here the term "fern" to introduce various groups; some, but not all, look like conventional ferns. What they have in common is that they reproduce through spores and this do not have "flowers". The lineage of these plants is old: they ewxisted long before the Angiospermae appeared. Some of these plants are characteristic and well known to local people.

Ampe, queille, palmita, Lophosoria quadripinnata. This is the fern by excellence. The graceful leaves are used to present flowers and became an export product. The young sprouts are edible and were a part of the indigenous diet, baked in the hot cinders of the home fire. It belongs to the Lophosoriaceae and is the only representative of this taxon in the region.

Pasto costilla, costilla de vaca, quilquil, Blechnum sp.. There are not less than six species of Blechnum present in the Lake area: B. arcuatum, B. blechnoides, B. chilense, B. hastatum, B. magellanicum, B. penna-marina. They belong to the group of the Blechnaceae.

Yerba del platero, limpia-plata, cola de caballo, Equisetum bogotense, Andean horsetail fern. At a distance it looks like a tuft of grass but the botanist's eye soon recognizes something radically different. Look for it in season at the upper limit of beaches. Limpia-plata has silicium crystals in its tissue, which confers a grinding property that herbivorous animals dislike, so they shun it. Instead, it has been found that it is good to make silverware shine. It also is attributed diverse medicinal properties. Yerba del platero is the only representative of the Equisetaceae in the region.

Helecho pelicula, sanguinaria, Hymenoglossum cruentum. There are 18 species of the Hymenophyllaceae (filmy ferns and bristle ferns) recognized in the region. Several of them are called "helecho pelicula", and many of them are epiphytes.

Licopodio, palmita, pimpinela, Lycopodium paniculatum. Licopodio looks like the illustration of a Carboniferous age forest. The Lycopodiaceae have three species in the region.

Flor del pato, luchecillo, Azolla filiculoides. Small plants floating on quiet waters. The leaves have a lower section with a cavity where cyanobacteria of the Anabaena type are hosted, able to fix nitrogen. Anabaenas also produce toxines. Wide global distribution.

Hierba-loza, huedahue, Gleichenia squamulosa. The Gleichenaceae have four representatives on the region, and they all go by the names yerba-loza.

There are more plants of this group present in the Lake region, and their determination is not so easy. The first volume of the "Flora de Chile" produced by the Universidad de Concepcion is dedicated to it and with that tool one can pursue de fern quest - with some dogged effort.

Mosses

Mosses are non-vascular green terrestrial plants. Globally some 15 000 species are recognized. Many of them exist as pioneers under extreme conditions. Moss diversity is particularly rich in rainforests, where their ability to filter rainwater and dew is advantageous. The Missouri Botanical Garden maintains an excellent site on the mosses of Chile. Some 800 species are recognized, of which 412 in the Lakes District. Sphagnum magellanicul, midway peat moss, is being harvested in Southern Chile (but not in the Lake region) for various applications. See Liliana Zurita's site on Sphangnum harvesting.

Herbaceous vegetation

"Herbaceous" is opposed here to "woody" or "ligneous". These plants subject to an annual cold season, as in the temperate climate, usually abandon their aerial parts to come again in the following vegetation period, either through the seeds they have shed or sprouting again from the roots. Ferns and mosses qualify as "herbaceous" but we have dealt with them separately because the eye, even without much formal training, soon recognizes that ferns and mosses are different.

Gramineas, pasto, Gramineae. The term "pasto" basically means "food" but is also used in the sense of "grass". The seeds of wheat and barley become human food as bread or beer. The seeds of various Gramineae feed a world of animals including birds and small rodents, while herbivorous animals consume the green parts of many of these plants. Gramineae are monocots, as anybody watching sporouting wheat or grass can see. Three species of them, belonging to the Bambuseae genus Chusquea, were already introduced under "bushes and shrubs" because of their woody quality. Besides the Chusqueas, the 1974 survey of the Lake region recognized 10 species of Gramineae. The differences among Gramineae can be subtle for the non-initiated and, not unlike ferns, lichens and mosses, these groups tend to become a field of attention for specialists. At this time we introduce only one of them, easily recognized.

Cola de zorro, cortadera, Cortaderia araucana. Cortaderas, "cutting grass", are not appreciated by herbivorous animals because of the sharp cutting edge of the leaves. This taxon of the Gramineae found its way into gardening because of its showy inflorescence, likened to a foxes' tail. C. araucana can be seen growing on the sand fields of the Osorno netween Ensenada and Petrohue, and at various rocky places around the Lake where it finds a bit of ground and light.

Ciperaceas, Cyperaceae. This taxon includes the sedges. The 1974 botanical survey of the Lake region identified 19 species within this taxon. Many of these plants have long, sharp leaves organized in a "triangular" way, that is, each leaf comes at 120 degrees from the preceding one. A number of indigenous names designated Cyperaceae but were not conceived to designate a species but its practical application. Cyperaceae generally grow on humid or waterlogged ground and their fibrous stems and leaves were used for such applications as braiding ropes and weaving mats - but plastic materials have made inroads in replacing such objects, and the interest of rural people in these plants has declined.

Quinquin, clinclin, Uncinia phleoides. The seeds of this species of the Cyperaceae clings to garments, hair and even to the skin.

Totora, Scirpus californicus. "Totora" is a word that applies to several species species of plants growing in the water or very close to it. Some are not Cyperaceae.

Pangue, nalca, Gunnera tinctoria. Formerly Gunnera chilensis. This impressive herb grows giant leaves that can have more than one meter across. The plant thrives with access to plenty water. The fleshy stem is edible in springtime, with a sligthly sweet and acid taste; it is this part of the plant that is meant with the word "nalca", while the legitimate name of the entire plant is "pangue". The roots have been used to dye wool and this use is the reason for its name G. tinctoria. Pangue belongs to the taxon of the Gunneraceae, early colonizers of steep land freed by landslide. The plant is used in gardening to decorate ponds. Pangue got feral on the Azores islands, where its ability to colonize steep slopes has made it a pest hard to control. All Gunnera plants are reported to form a symbiosis with a nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria. The symbiosis is thought to provide the plant with fixed nitrogen in return for fixed carbon for the bacterium. This symbiosis allows growth of the plant on soil poor in fixed nitrogen. A small cousin of this species: Gunnera magellanica is present at colder climates in the Lake region.

Ortiga caballuna, Loasa sp.. The plants of the taxon of the Loasaceae generally have strongly urticating hair and are known as "ortiga caballuna", "horse nettle". More than 40 Loasa species are known to exist in Chile. None is recognized in the 1974 VPRNP survey but at least one species is quite notorious on the fringe of fields and in clear forest in the Lake region, possible advantaged by human action. The Loasaceae are currently being revised with many interesting findings.

Flor de pantano, violeta cimarrona, Pinguicula antartica. Butterwort, ping. Lentibulariaceae. This is a pygmy carnivorous plant. It grows in altitude swamps.

Llanten peludo, Plantago barbata. Found above the timber line.

Frutilla chilena, Fragaria chiloensis. This is the indigenous strawberry.

Quinchamali, Quinchamalium andinum. This herb of the range above the timber line is attributed medicinal properties.

Mushrooms

Mushrooms grow in the woods, the fields and on trees, living or dead; they are the reproductive organ of the fungal organism from where the spores or "seeds" will take off to propagate the species. The vegetative organism through which the fungus is supplied with nutrients is called "micelium" and is not easily seen; the micelium is composed of very thin filments called "hiphae". Unlike vegetal organisms, fungi alone cannot perform photosynthesis. In spite of what would appear as severe handicaps, fungi are nowhere on the way to extinction: they will be around long after primates, the family of man, will be gone into oblivion. To obtain the nutrients necessary for their life, fungi have developed diverse strategies: they recycle dead organic matter in the soil or wherever they find it, and they associate with other organisms that do perform photosynthesis ("autobionts"), with mutual benefits. Some fungi recycle, for their own purpose, living organic matter - in other words, such fungi parasitize plants or animals. The micelium - the body of the fungus - can extend its hyphae (its "roots") for a considerable distance, of some fungi organisms that extend, from one end to another, over one km. As for their "seeds", the spores, these are numerous and tiny and can travel large distances carried by the air. Literally, where there is fungal food, spores will land on it and fungi will take possession. Of course, there is much more to a fungus than gray hair on rotting food and black spots on rose leaves or the hat and stem of the mushrooms we may find on fields and in the woods. It is estimated that there may exist 500 000 species of fungi on the globe, and many of them have never been described. For many of the described ones, we have only approximative notions about their biology. Fungi can be extremely useful, as found by Fleming when discovering penicilline; fungi can also be fearful agricultural pests, and most research has focused on these species of significant imediate impact. Chileans say "It's worth a fungus" to mean worthless, but that figure underrates these organisms. A kilogram of truffles can be worth several thousand dollars - if it is of the good sort.

In this section we will deal with "mushrooms", the "flowering" part of saprophytic fungi, insofar as they have been seen in the Lake region; "saprophytic" stands for fungi that mainly recycle dead organic matter; however, for many species it is not known what exactly they do for a livelihood. We are barely scratching at the surface of the vast world of fungal organisms.

Some mushrooms are good edible. For many of us, finding mushrooms is fun. Some mushrooms make good food, some are just edible, some are slightly indigest but still edible, some are toxic and cause serious indigestion and some are poisonous and letal. Tasting mushrooms indiscriminately is like playing Russian roulette. DO NOT CONSUME MUSHROOMS UNLESS YOU KNOW VERY WELL WHAT YOU ARE DOING. If you don't know, first learn by watching somebody experienced collecting, preparing and eating them and, before you repeat that performance, make sure that that person, as we hope, is staying alive and smiling, free of belly cramps. Mark exactly, not distractedly, the look of the mushroom, its scent and its age. Do not panic but be prudent - after all, mushrooms can be both nutritious and delicious, and every year only a few reckless individuals die from consumption of poisonous mushrooms. As for truffles, none has ever been seen growing in this region. Good luck!

Dihueñe, llaollao, pinatra, Cyttaria sp. grows on the branches of various Nothofagus trees. In the Lake region, the species that grows in springtime on the branches of coihue is reputed to be Cyttaria harioti. It looks like a bunch of orange pingpong balls and is usually eaten raw in the form of salad. It tastes slightly sweet. Reputedly the best pinatra is Cyttaria spinosa, which grows on Nothofagus obliqua, a species not present in the Lake region. Cyttaria darwinii, equally edible, is said to grow on coihue as well.

Lengua de vaca, Fistulina hepatica. This is a global fungus and it grows on various species of Nothofagus. Can be eaten raw - refreshing in summer - or cooked.

Changle, pata de lagartija, pilo-pilo, Clavulina cristata, of the Clavariaceae. It looks like a bunch of yellow nails. Often found associated with quila, murta and chaura, also with coihue. Apppreciated edible, but some warnings that it is toxic.

Chicharron de monte, Gyromitra antarctica. This fungus looks like a brown brain. Often sprouts after fire. It contains helvetic acid and must be cooked before consumption.

Loyo, Boletus loyo. This yellow Boletus can become quite big (18 cm). Often found associated with quila. Good edible.

Choclo, picoco, colmenita, Morchella intermedia. Morels look like a corn cob in light brown, and "choclo" is quechua for corn cob. They are hollow. A good edible but it is recommended to wash them with hot water before frying. Morchella conica appears to be equivalent to Morchella intermedia.

Other mushrooms reputed to be good edible (but not proven present in the Lake region) are Agaricus arvensis, Lactarius deliciosus, Macrolepiota bonaerense, Suillus luteus, Volvariella especiosa and Xerocomus chrysenteron.

Lichens

The Southern Rainforest is particularly rich in lichens. At certain levels, lichens are extremely abundant and of impressive size. What then is a lichen? These organisms are composed of a fungus - the micobiont - and one or more associate species capable of performing photosynthesis, and they cooperate - they are symbionts. The associate(s) of the fungus are usually cyanobacteria or green algae; they are calle phytobionts. In the association, the fungus provides support, minerals and water; the alga synthesizes sugars that feed the fungus. The associated species keep each one their own reproductive system. Lichens are versatile and extremely hardy organisms that colonize both extremely cold and extremely hot areas where other organisms fail to set foot. Lichens are however unable to eliminate toxic elements or compounds, such as heavy metals, and when these are present, they accummulate and kill the organims. Thus, lichens are used as sensible indicators of atmospheric pollution.

The estimated number of lichen species is around 20 000. About 100 new species are described every year. The lake area surely has above 200 species.

Barba de palo, Usnea sp.. These lichens of a light yellow color grow on branches, under certain conditions in large quantities and in big specimens. The forest most rich in these lichens appears around 1000 meters. Barba de palo is used for dyeing wood in a yellow color.

Any lichenologists out there willing to bring the lichen flora closer to the insight of the Southern Rainforest visitor? We will be happy to insert here or to propose a link.

Neophytes, exotes and ferals

Lake settlers introduced a number of botany species originated elsewhere, some to provide food and pasture, others for ornament. Some species were introduced unwittingly, such as the ubiquitous sietevenas, Plantago lanceolata. There was not much pasture in the Southern Rainforest and most grazing for livestock is provided by exotic fodder plants; in the fields one has to look closely to find native species. Exotic plants escaped from domesticity and thriving in the wild are a cause of concern for various reasons, among which ecological imbalance is prominent.

Alamo, Populus nigra, the black poplar, was planted by early settlers for protection from wind after the native forest was destroyed by fire. Some of these poplars are still around. All black poplars in Chile are said to descend from one stake brought by the Jesuits centuries ago, and these trees are all male and produce no seed. The presence of the sorry poplars brings reminders of a time when settlers, their eyes blind to the beauty of native trees, hated the native forest. The poplar stakes rammed into the ground around the settlers houses symbolized, in a way, a wall against savage nature.

Other trees, such as oak, maple, and various sorts of pine and cedar were introduced for ornamental purposes; native species were intrinsecally not considered ornamental. But meanwhile, many Valdivian rain forest species have become good sellers in international gardening.

Besides familiar forest trees, settlers planted fruit-bearing trees, such as: manzano, Malus comunis, apple tree; ciruelo, cerezo, Prunus sp., Plum and cherry trees; nogal, Juglans regia, walnut; and castaño, Castanea sativa, sweet chestnut. Certain forms of peach as well as avocado have, at the climate limit, found their way into the region's homestead gardens. These species have not become a problem.

Zarzamora, murra, Rubus sp., blackberry, was introduced by settlers as a welcome fruit. It adapted very well and, forming dense, spiny shrubs not acessible to cattle, became a thorny agricultural weed problem. Chemical war on it was costly and undesirable. Goats were found to be good to contain the weed because they browse the new sprouts in springtime and thus weaken the pest. The arrival of a fungal disease that keeps the blackberry modest has limited it's pest status: it has become an ordinary pest.

Retamo, Spartium junceum, syn. Genista juncea, Spanish broom, which belongs to the Fabaceae, was introduced for ornamental purposes. This plant is toxic and not grazed by animals. The Lake region is being severely invaded by this species. It thrives on poor soils. Big thickets are seen growing on the dry, sandy soil at the foot of the Osorno along the Ensenada-Petrohue road, and around the parking place in Petrohue. It's yellow flowers in springtime are ornamental indeed but are having a visible impact on a landscape were they dont belong.

Cartucho, Digitalis purpurea, foxgloves, death man's bells, was introduced in the 19th century for gardening. This plant, classified in the Plantaginaceae (formerly Scrophulariaceae), contains digitalin, a medicament for heart conditions. The plant is toxic and not consumed by animals.

Rosa mosqueta, Rosa eglanteria syn. Rosa canina, European wild rose, tends to invade unattended fields. The petals can be used to prepare a perfumed syrup. The fruits are collected to prepare an infusion ("Cynorhodon") and a tasty jam. In the wild it remains an undesirable pest.

Llanten sietevenas, Plantago lanceolata, ribworth plantain, the step of the white man. Its seeds stick to the boots. In a farmers view, uselessly takes large acreage of pasture land. The species is not tasty to animals and thus favoured by overgrazing.